Under escort from the U.S. Army's 101st Airborne Division, nine black students enter all-white Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas. Three weeks earlier, Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus had surrounded the school with National Guard troops to prevent its federal court-ordered racial integration. After a tense standoff, President Dwight D. Eisenhower federalized the Arkansas National Guard and sent 1,000 army paratroopers to Little Rock to enforce the court order.
On May 17, 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled unanimously in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka that racial segregation in educational facilities was unconstitutional. Five days later, the Little Rock School Board issued a statement saying it would comply with the decision when the Supreme Court outlined the method and time frame in which desegregation should be implemented.
Arkansas was at the time among the more progressive Southern states in regard to racial issues. The University of Arkansas School of Law was integrated in 1949, and the Little Rock Public Library in 1951. Even before the Supreme Court ordered integration to proceed "with all deliberate speed," the Little Rock School Board in 1955 unanimously adopted a plan of integration to begin in 1957 at the high school level. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) filed suit, arguing the plan was too gradual, but a federal judge dismissed the suit, saying that the school board was acting in "utmost good faith." Meanwhile, Little Rock's public buses were desegregated. By 1957, seven out of Arkansas' eight state universities were integrated.
In the spring of 1957, there were 517 black students who lived in the Central High School district. Eighty expressed an interest in attending Central in the fall, and they were interviewed by the Little Rock School Board, which narrowed down the number of candidates to 17. Eight of those students later decided to remain at all-black Horace Mann High School, leaving the "Little Rock Nine" to forge their way into Little Rock's premier high school.
In August 1957, the newly formed Mother's League of Central High School won a temporary injunction from the county chancellor to block integration of the school, charging that it "could lead to violence." Federal District Judge Ronald Davies nullified the injunction on August 30. On September 2, Governor Orval Faubus—a staunch segregationist—called out the Arkansas National Guard to surround Central High School and prevent integration, ostensibly to prevent the bloodshed he claimed desegregation would cause. The next day, Judge Davies ordered integrated classes to begin on September 4.
That morning, 100 armed National Guard troops encircled Central High School. A mob of 400 white civilians gathered and turned ugly when the black students began to arrive, shouting racial epithets and threatening the teenagers with violence. The National Guard troops refused to let the black students pass and used their clubs to control the crowd. One of the nine, 15-year-old Elizabeth Eckford, was surrounded by the mob, which threatened to lynch her. She was finally led to safety by a sympathetic white woman.
Little Rock Mayor Woodrow Mann condemned Faubus' decision to call out the National Guard, but the governor defended his action, reiterating that he did so to prevent violence. The governor also stated that integration would occur in Little Rock when and if a majority of people chose to support it. Faubus' defiance of Judge Davies' court order was the first major test of Brown v. Board of Education and the biggest challenge of the federal government's authority over the states since the Reconstruction Era.
The standoff continued, and on September 20 Judge Davies ruled that Faubus had used the troops to prevent integration, not to preserve law and order as he claimed. Faubus had no choice but to withdraw the National Guard troops. Authority over the explosive situation was put in the hands of the Little Rock Police Department.
On September 23, as a mob of 1,000 whites milled around outside Central High School, the nine black students managed to gain access to a side door. However, the mob became unruly when it learned the black students were inside, and the police evacuated them out of fear for their safety. That evening, President Eisenhower issued a special proclamation calling for opponents of the federal court order to "cease and desist." On September 24, Little Rock's mayor sent a telegram to the president asking him to send troops to maintain order and complete the integration process. Eisenhower immediately federalized the Arkansas National Guard and approved the deployment of U.S. troops to Little Rock. That evening, from the White House, the president delivered a nationally televised address in which he explained that he had taken the action to defend the rule of law and prevent "mob rule" and "anarchy." On September 25, the Little Rock Nine entered the school under heavily armed guard.
Troops remained at Central High School throughout the school year, but still the black students were subjected to verbal and physical assaults from a faction of white students. Melba Patillo, one of the nine, had acid thrown in her eyes, and Elizabeth Eckford was pushed down a flight of stairs. The three male students in the group were subjected to more conventional beatings. Minnijean Brown was suspended after dumping a bowl of chili over the head of a taunting white student. She was later suspended for the rest of the year after continuing to fight back. The other eight students consistently turned the other cheek. On May 27, 1958, Ernest Green, the only senior in the group, became the first black to graduate from Central High School.
Governor Faubus continued to fight the school board's integration plan, and in September 1958 he ordered Little Rock's three high schools closed rather than permit integration. Many Little Rock students lost a year of education as the legal fight over desegregation continued. In 1959, a federal court struck down Faubus' school-closing law, and in August 1959 Little Rock's white high schools opened a month early with black students in attendance. All grades in Little Rock public schools were finally integrated in 1972.
Thanks for that bit of information about black-white american racial discrimination for this should not be the case as we are all one despite of difference in colours and religions.
ReplyDeleteA good reminder that civil rights did not just start with JFK.
ReplyDeleteHumans fight what they fear, a sad recount of too many fearful Americans. I am proud of the fact that my great grandfather joined the union army when the civil war started. I was taught people were people. I have a huge problem with"titles" We have a president . We do not need to know the color of his skin as ALL media insists on reminding us as though we can not see. I remember when the media tried the" Catholic" president when it was JFK. It has always been silly and still is.
thank -you
ReplyDeleteI was a twinkle in my father's eye, when this was all going down. I read the stories, and looked at the horrible images of grown white folks intimidating, insulting, berating a child---all while holding a BIble in their hands. I went to a small town high school, as an all Native American it was primarily white. The schools and places may have been integrated physically but a lot of children of color still don't have a fighting chance. Not one of those high school instructor's bothered with me. It is a horrible feeling to be looked over, glossed over and without any words told you don't matter. I shared an ambition with an instructor to go to a University and he said as if to quash my aspiration, "you probably won't be able to afford it". I was doubly threatening because I was aware and could use my brain. But it didn't matter, because they weren't going to give me a break. I still see many get lost in the cracks, and the same ideals and behaviors. I've thought of writing to the school board, now as an adult successful woman. To tell them how they're predecessors failed me, and how I'd hope they could make a difference and change.
ReplyDeleteI never believe within labels and within history that had took place before you or I were born.
ReplyDeleteTee your so right it didnt start with John. Yet John along with Bobby aided what they believed in. Wallace as I recall was like many so against this. But via Martin Luther and then with the involvement of the Kennedy family were able to at least break the "chain" of segregation. You would know of this better than I but on that date it was a time in which intergration was starting to be understood much better than segregation.
ReplyDeleteIn John's memoirs he wrote that this was most probably the best thing he accomplished as a President.
He regarded it as surpassing placing a man on the moon. Meanwhile, Hoover was livid. :)
Deb the only label I like is that of Campbell's' Soup. :)
ReplyDeleteWe have something in common. Before I was born my father was in the US. It was right at this time and much like your story the one thing my father taught me was never to judge a person. He would host parties with some of his friends which included that of what we then was called - colored. Washington called Ottawa as they were miffed that these quarterly parties were placed on which included one of my father's best friends which still is alive but was that of a colour. My father never waivered, and when he met with the powers he stayed to his beliefs. As he was within the Air Force at the time when Ottawa (Canada's Washington DC) within his own memoirs he stated, " If I have to neglect those whom work along with me and are of a different color there is something very wrong and you may either relieve me from duty as I shall not neglect any person of any value. "
ReplyDeleteWithin 24 hours those within power decided to let it slide. My father would have left without any concerns as there were somethings which he did hold of value and this was one of them. I came to know it later on as a child. For no person due to color or creed should be judge on the merits other than those of which they do. John F. Kennedy along with other brought about integration.
Again I don't believe within labels. Livingportland I don't know you but keep you head up high and never - never get lost within the cracks. Be you and take it to where you wish to go. I would assume of your ethnicity and carry on and don't let anyone stop you from doing what you wish to do...I know this is a blog but if you got it - you got it and then use it. Still within today there is prejudism but the manner I see it - is those are the people which I refer to as "popcorn people" they sit on the fence watch what you do and try to squash you aspirations. I still see cracks too but far less but I have never waivered from the ideals of that of which I was raised and I am merely ethnically Norwegian, Hungarian, and Italian....but my friends within life are vast and within many arrays of creeds and colors.